Deaf People and Social Trauma: Effects on Interpersonal Relationships and Resiliency
Holly Siegrist, Ph.D., Psy.D.
Background of the Study
The Experiences of Deaf People
As a deaf woman, learning about other d/Deaf and hard of hearing people's experiences throughout their lives was important to me. Deaf people may have unique childhood experiences. They are an underserved population, as their social experiences are often misunderstood (O'Hearn et al., 2010). Psychological experiences of deaf and hard of hearing people are important to explore in the fields of psychology and disability studies, in order to learn about oppression and how people empower themselves.
Many deaf people may experience communication difficulties and social exclusion throughout their lives (Ratna, 1994). In childhood, many deaf people's hearing families encourage spoken language (O'Hearn et al., 2010). Only 10% of hearing parents learn sign language, and deaf people can only lip-read around 20-30% of what people say. Social exclusion can have an impact on the social cognitive development and well-being of deaf people (Hauer, et al., 2008). Psychological distress due to oppression in social interactions experienced by deaf people is a neglected topic.
Deaf people often experience exclusion in social interactions. For example, "dinner table syndrome" is where a deaf person is left out of family conversation and laughter. When asked what is being said, a family member may respond with "it's not important" or "I'll tell you later," which is invalidating. Also, deaf children who are mainstreamed in school with hearing children often experience loneliness, rejection, and social isolation (Javis et al., 2003). As a result of these experiences, deaf children can feel that they are being treated unfairly and not accepted (O'Hearn et al., 2010).
Oppression of Deaf and Disabled People
People from oppressed groups often experience unfair treatment. For example, deaf people may experience microaggressions, which are subtle negative comments, actions, or messages made to a person in reaction to the person's hearing difficulty (Sue, 2010). An example of a microaggression is a hearing person telling a deaf person they are "too quiet." Microaggressions can be ongoing stressors for deaf people.
Experiencing microaggressions and social exclusion can negatively affect one's sense of well-being. Disabled people often experience psychological distress when nondisabled people do not accept how disabled people do things differently (French,1999). Psycho-emotional disablism is where a person feels worthless or ashamed as a result of discrimination (Reeve, 2006). Being excluded can make disabled people feel like they are different and do not belong. While people may feel helpless when they experience microaggressions, it is also possible to gain strength from adversity (Sue, 2010).
Stigma and Shame
Stigma is a negative way that others react to a person, and it is projected onto the person. Shame, on the other hand, is how a person feels about oneself as a result of others seeing them in a negative way and being treated unfairly (Johnson, 2017). With shame, a person feels that they have done something ridiculous or are ridiculous (Dictionary.com). Shame can take away a person's sense of self, and make one feel wounded (Pierce, 2013). It can lead to fear, triggers of shameful feelings, or avoidance of difficult situations.
Stigma involves perceiving a person as having negative characteristics, so it is viewed as being okay to discriminate against the person (Goffman, 1963). Nondisabled people often assume that a disabled person's perceived stigma is because of the person's character, and that it applies to other aspects of the person's personality and abilities, which is the "spread effect." As a result, disabled people may try to pass as nondisabled by hiding their stigmatized identities.
Internalized Oppression
Similarly, internalized oppression is where one internalizes negative attitudes about one's group (David, 2014). Internalized oppression can result from deaf people being treated unfairly and being excluded by hearing people. Deaf people may then believe they deserve to be
treated unfairly, and not think they are worthy of living good lives (Leigh, 2009).
Trauma and Abuse
In childhood, deaf people experiencing difficulties in their families and at school with their peers, as a result of communication barriers and being socially excluded, can be traumatizing (O'Hearn et al., 2010). Deaf people also have high rates of physical, emotional, and sexual abuse in childhood (Embury, 2001). Trauma is a physical or emotional experience that causes extreme pain (David, 2009).
Deaf people may be exposed to interpersonal traumas at a much higher rate than hearing people. As many as 50% of deaf children may have experienced sexual abuse, as compared to 10% to 25% of hearing children (Vernon & Miller, 2002). As a result of trauma, deaf people are more susceptible to developing mental health issues (Knutson et al., 2004). Also, deaf women may experience emotional abuse from their hearing partners, and as a result, may prefer deaf partners, as deaf people may accept and understand them better (McLaughlin, 2012).
The Effects of Trauma
As a result of trauma and difficulties with communication, deaf people may be misunderstood by hearing people, which can affect deaf people's confidence in themselves (Leigh, 1999). Trauma can include ongoing stressors that appear traumatic to a person if there is a sense that one does not have control of situations, or the resources to deal with things that happen (Robinson et al., 2016). In experiencing too much stress or painful emotions, a person may feel powerless.
Past trauma can affect how deaf people think, feel, and behave in current situations (Vernon & Miller, 2002). Deaf people believing that they will be rejected can become a self-fulfilling prophecy. When deaf people feel excluded and invalidated they may not have the confidence that people will be supportive or present for them. This can lead to feelings of inferiority, helplessness, hopelessness, anger, poor decision making, and second guessing oneself. It can lead to people making bad decisions that are self-defeating. However, they can also be very resilient (Leigh, 2009).
Well-Being and Identity of Deaf People
As a result of being mistreated, deaf people may experience depression and low self-esteem (O'Hearn et al., 2010). They may also have trouble developing a positive identity and finding places where they feel they belong, if they have not had an opportunity to learn sign language or be around other deaf people (Corker, 1996). Also, experiencing multiple oppressions can have an effect on a person's self-concept (Maxwell & McCaw, 2001). However, deaf people who identify with other deaf people or are bicultural often have higher self-esteem (Glickman, 1996).
Barriers to Mental Health Treatment
Deaf people may have difficulties accessing mental health services. There are high demands for mental health services to assist deaf people and a lack of mental health professionals who are trained to work with deaf people (Schild, 2007). Very few therapists use sign language or are knowledgeable about deaf people's social experiences or the need for interpreters (Schenkel et al., 2014).
Resilience of Deaf People
While deaf people may experience communication difficulties and social exclusion throughout their lives, they can also be resilient and find positive ways of coping with difficult social situations (Arnold & MacKenzie, 1998). Protective factors in deaf people include confidence, determination, and living their lives in ways that work for them (Leigh, 2009). Resilience involves having positive relationships, being comfortable with one's deaf identity, and communicating with others about what one needs (Thomas, 1999). Standing up for oneself, and being involved in deaf and disability activism and talking to others with similar experiences can also be helpful (Leigh, 2009).
Therapy Recommendations in the Literature
Therapists should be aware of the oppression that deaf clients may face (Ratna, 1994), and have training on working with deaf people. Culturally affirmative therapy involves respecting the client's culture (Glickman & Harvey, 1996). Therapy should work to achieve personal growth, and increase self-awareness, coping skills, and self-esteem (Corker, 1996). Also, O'Hearn et al. (2010) recommend Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), as it is beneficial with clients with trauma histories, and it validates clients' experiences while also encouraging change.
References
Arnold, P., & MacKenzie, I. (1998). Rejection of hearing aids: A
critical review. Journal of Audiological Medicine, 7, 173-199.
Corker, M. (1996). Deaf transitions. Jessica Kingsley Publishers Ltd.
David, E. J. R. (2009). Internalized oppression, psychopathology, and
cognitive behavioral therapy among historically oppressed groups. Journal of Psychological Practice, 15(1), 71-103.
David, E. J. R., & Derthick, A. O. (2014). What is internalized
oppression and so what? In E.J.R. David (Ed.), Internalized oppression: The psychology of marginalized groups (pp. 1-30). Springer Publishing Company.
Embury, R. (2001). Examination of risk factors for maltreatment of
deaf children: Findings from a national survey. Paper presented at the 7th International Family Violence Research Conference, Portsmith, NH.
Dictionary.com. (2002). deaf. Dictionary.com.
http://www.dictionary.com/browse/deaf
French, S. (1999). The wind gets in my way. In M. Corker & S.
French (Eds.), Disability discourse (pp. 21–27). Open University Press.
Glickman, N. S., & Harvey, M. A. (1996). Culturally affirmative
psychotherapy with Deaf persons. Routledge.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled
identity. Simon & Shuster, Inc.
Hauser, P. C., O’Hearn, A., McKee, M. G., Steider, A. M., & Thew, D.
(2010). Deaf epistemology: Deafhood and deafness. American Annals of the Deaf, 154(5), 486–492.
Javis, J., Sinka, I., & Iantaffi, A. (2003). Deaf pupils’ views of inclusion
in mainstream schools. Deafness and Education International, 5(3), 144–156. GallaudetUniversity.
http://libguides.gallaudet.edu/
content.php?pid=114455&sid=989379
Knutson, J. F., Johnson, C. R., & Sullivan, P. M. (2004). Disciplinary
choices of mothers of deaf children and mothers of normally hearing children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(9), 925–937.
Leigh, I. W. (1999). Inclusive education and personal development.
Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 4, 236–245.
Leigh, I. W. (2009). A lens on deaf identities. Oxford University Press,
Inc.
Maxwell-McCaw, D. (2001). Acculturation and psychological well-
being in deaf and hard of hearing people. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). George Washington University, Washington, DC.
O’Hearn, A., Pollard, R., & Haynes, S. (2010). Dialectical behavior
therapy for deaf clients: Cultural and linguistic modifications for outpatient mental health settings, in I. Leigh (Ed.), Psychotherapy with deaf clients from diverse groups (2nd ed.) (pp. 372-392). Gallaudet University Press.
Pierce, L. (2013, March 18). Disability and traumatic shame: A way
out [Blog post]. Good therapy. https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/disability-and-traumatic-shame-0318134
Ratna, H. (1994). Counselling deaf and hard of hearing clients,
Counselling, 5(2), 128–131.
Reeve, D. (2006). Towards a psychology of disability: The emotional
effects of living in a disabling society. In D. Goodley & R. Lawthom (Eds.), Disability and psychology: Critical introductions and reflections (pp. 94–107). Palgrave.
Robinson, Smith, & Segal (2016). Emotional and psychological
trauma: Symptoms, treatment, and recovery. Helpguide International. http://www.helpguide.org/articles/ptsd-trauma/emotional-and-psychological-trauma.htm
Schenkel, L. S., Rothman-Marshall, G., Schlehofer, D. A., Towne, T.
L., Burnash, D. L., & Priddy, B. M. (2014). Child maltreatment and trauma exposure among deaf and hard of hearing young adults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(10), 1581–1589.
Schild, S. (2007). Trauma symptoms in deaf adults (Doctoral
dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3287794)
Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions, marginality, and oppression. In
D.W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact (pp. 3-22). Wiley.
Thomas, C. (1999b). Narrative identity and the disabled self. In M.
Corker & S. French (Eds.), Disability discourse (pp. 47–56). Open University Press.
Vernon, M., & Miller, K. (2002). Issues in the sexual molestation of
deaf youth. American Annals of the Deaf, 147(5), 28-35.
